History
The Korean martial art Taekwondo emerged in the mid-twentieth century and has subsequently become one of the most widely practiced martial arts in the world. Taekwondo, literally, “foot-hand-way (“Tae”-foot, “Kwon”-fist, “do”-way) is characterized by dynamic, powerful kicking, punching, and striking techniques. Taekwondo seeks to achieve martial arts mastery by the unification of the mind, body and spirit. Taekwondo is deeply rooted in traditional Korean martial disciplines, particularly Tae Kyon and Su Bak. It is thought that Taekwondo’s antecedents date from as early as 50 B.C., as evidenced by wall paintings found in burial tombs from that period that depict individuals in what appear to be fighting stances. Throughout Korea’s history, martial arts have played an instrumental role, particularly from 660-668 A.D., when the three kingdoms (Silla 57 B.C.-935 A.D., Paekje 18 B.C.-660A.D., and Koguryo 37 B.C. -668 A.D.) were unified under Silla. It was during this period that the Hwarang warriors were active (literally, “flower of young manhood”), thought to be practitioners of Tae Kyon and Su Bak among other martial arts; the code of conduct embraced by the Hwarang forms the basis for modern Taekwondo’s Five Tenets of ethical behavior.
A number of schools, or kwans, of similar Korean martial disciplines, were unified to form Taekwondo in 1955, originally under the name Tae Soo Do, which was then changed to Taekwondo in 1957 to more accurately reflect the art’s origin. In May of 1973, the World Taekwondo Federation (W.T.F.) was established; in the same year, the first World Taekwondo Championship was held at the Kuk Ki Won, the worldwide Taekwondo headquarters, in Seoul, Korea. In July of 1980, at the Eighty-Third International Olympic Committee Session in Moscow, the W.T.F. was granted I.O.C. recognition, elevating competitive Taekwondo to an Olympic sport. In 1988, Taekwondo was included in the Olympic Games in Seoul, Korea as a demonstration sport. At the Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia in 2000 Taekwondo became a full medal Olympic sport. Today, it is one of two martial arts, along with Judo, contested in the Olympic Games. The trajectory of Taekwondo’s evolution has been from ancient combat form to Way, to sport.
Structure
As practiced today, Taekwondo consists of four elements: sparring or kyorugi; forms or Poomsae; breaking, or Kyukpa; and self -defense, or hoshinsul., all four of which require a strong command of basic technique. Taekwondo competitions are comprised of kyorugi, Poomsae and, at least occasionally in the US, Kyukpa. Both kyorugi and Poomsae are governed by strict rules formulated and promulgated by the W.T.F. The purpose of kyorugi is to test one’s skills within specific rules against an opponent without engaging in actual combat. Taekwondo Kyorugi is performed with full contact while wearing protective equipment. Poomsae or forms are a series of prearranged techniques a practitioner performs against an imaginary opponent. Until the development of sparring, much of martial arts training was limited to practicing basic technique, forms and actual combat! Forms serve another purpose: they preserve the technique for future generations of Taekwondo students. Taken as a whole, Taekwondo Poomsae constitutes a complete lexicon of Taekwondo techniques. Kyukpa or breaking is practiced against a variety of materials: wood, bricks, stone, tiles, ice, etc. Kyukpa is a means of testing the skill and power of one’s technique against an inanimate object. Kyukpa requires not only physical skill (proper hand or foot formation, speed, power, accuracy, penetration, and timing), but also proper breath control, focus, concentration and the integration of the mind-body and spirit. Hoshinsul, self-defense, is the culmination of all of the above. Effective self-defense requires strong technique and the ability to respond to the dynamics of combat with a calm unfettered mind; precisely those attributes developed by the practice of Kyorugi, Poomsae and Kyukpa.
Martial Art or Sport?
The fundamental nature of Taekwondo is a matter of some debate, both within the ranks of Taekwondo practitioners and the martial arts community. The debate is centered on the question of whether Taekwondo is a martial art or has become a sport. Those that subscribe to the latter position point to the evolution (or devolution, depending on one’s position!) of competition over the course of the past several decades, particularly since Taekwondo became an Olympic sport in 1988. Techniques, so the argument goes, have developed (or not) for the express purpose of scoring points in the competition, with little regard for their effectiveness in actual combat. In all fairness, the goals and objectives of sport Taekwondo and traditional (or perhaps more accurately, not-just–sport Taekwondo!) are not identical. Practitioners of sport Taekwondo train to score more points than their opponents in order to win competitive matches. Traditional Taekwondo practitioners, particularly those whose focus is practicing and teaching self-defense, do not restrict their attacks to, “legal,” target areas, nor are they concerned with scoring points. On the contrary, often training is directed towards developing devastating power as expressed in the doctrine of,”il kyuk pil sul,” or, “first strike, swift and complete.”Training to achieve any other objective, scoring points, for example, is seen as counter-productive. Conversely, competitors far too often regard those elements of Taekwondo that are associated with traditional training-self-defense training, forms, meditation, etc.-as having no value in competition and are ignored as practitioners focus their training exclusively on techniques for competition. Indeed, competitors frequently refer to themselves as, “athletes,” not as Taekwondo practitioners.
The concern by traditionalists is that Taekwondo will soon be indistinguishable from kickboxing. Proponents of this position draw an analogy to Judo. Judo was created by Jiguro Kano in 1882 as a means of inculcating moral principles and developing physical fitness. As originally conceived by Kano, it is a comprehensive discipline consisting of throws, grappling techniques, strikes, kata, and sparring. The latter evolved into a competitive sport, the popularity of which has eclipsed its other elements. The emphasis on sport to the exclusion of its other aspects has resulted in a discipline that some view as lacking combat effectiveness. In their work, The Way to go, by Daeshik Kim and Allan Black, the authors note:
Already judo has moved away from the balance of activities envisioned by Kano and become mostly sport. Iaido and kendo too have lost much of their combat effectiveness.
Kim and Black go on to quote Toshishiro Obata:
The highly effective if somewhat dangerous techniques of ju-jitsu were…molded into a form…called Judo. This became an Olympic sport losing what remained of its combat effectiveness.
The concern is that Taekwondo will follow the path of Judo and continue to develop as a sport to the exclusion of it’s more traditional elements. It should be noted that the evolution of Judo and now the apparent evolution of Taekwondo is regarded by a number of practitioners as a, “natural,” progression from art to Way to sport. This is precisely the argument made by Mr. Herb Perez, Taekwondo gold medalist in the 1992 Olympic Games, in a two-part article in Black Belt magazine (Perez 1998).
Perhaps because of Taekwondo’s status as a competitive Olympic sport, the internet is replete with references to, and often vituperative criticism of, Olympic style Taekwondo kyorugi. In his review of G. Cameron Hurst lll’s work, Armed Martial Arts of Japan: Swordsmanship and Archery (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998), Mr. Raymond Sosnowski notes, “My disdain for WTF TKD is well known over the years it has unfortunately degenerated into a game of ‘kick-tag;’ it’s no martial art nor way.” Mr. Sosnowski then proceeds to cite the opinion of the late Taekwondo Grandmaster, Sang Kyu Shim, former editor of Taekwondo Times magazine”…he said it should be called ‘Tae Kwon” because there is no, ”Do” (“way”) in WTF TKD. Grandmaster Shim also stated, “The martial arts are not mere sport despite a superficial resemblance between the two. Some enthusiasts would like to include the martial arts in the Olympic competitions. This is contrary to the nature and spirit of the martial arts. Commendable as the Olympics may be as a form of international competitions they are not a way of life, as the martial arts, in their true sense, are.” It should be noted that Mr. Sosnowski studied International Taekwondo Federation(ITF) Taekwondo for sixteen years prior to his study of the Japanese martial arts Kendo, Iaido, Jodo ,Naginata, and Kyudo. It should also be noted that Taekwondo Times magazine is an ITF publication.
Participants in Internet chat rooms take great delight in criticizing Olympic style Taekwondo kyorugi. Oddly, such criticism comes from both modern and traditional ends of the spectrum of self-appointed martial arts cognoscenti. Competitive Taekwondo techniques are both derided as, ”weak,” and “ineffective,” by traditionalists and, consequently, considered less effective as a means of self-defense. Conversely, Taekwondo kicking techniques are also described as, “ineffective,” by advocates of mixed martial arts type competitions.
The view that Taekwondo has become something other than a martial art, then, follows from the fact that Taekwondo practitioners engage in competition. This argument takes the position that any departure from what is considered traditional instruction irretrievably compromises the integrity of the art, transforming it into something else entirely. This perspective is certainly not unique to Taekwondo but is quite common among martial-arts purists. Typically, proponents of this view generally eschew hard full contact sparring in favor of less physically demanding training. The author Jane Hallander, writing in an article in Black Belt magazine, entitled,” Is Taekwondo a Sport or Self-Defense System?” states, “There is more to taekwondo than just tournament competition. From kicks, to hand strikes, to throws, to joint locks, taekwondo possesses an array of defensive measures designed to thwart virtually any kind of attack. The most difficult part will not be learning these self-defense techniques but finding a taekwondo instructor who still teaches them.” This description of Taekwondo as a comprehensive martial art with a rich variety of techniques is offered as a rebuttal to the notion that Taekwondo is,” merely,” sparring. Certainly, this issue is not unique to Taekwondo and Judo. Aikido Master Koichi Tohei states,” The original intention of sports is to hold a contest of skills in accordance with rules and to enjoy the actual winning and losing. This is perfectly fine in these cases and in those martial arts that are describable as sports. The purpose of a real martial art, however, is quite different in that in both attack and defense we must always presuppose a genuine danger. Whatever an opponent may do, it is useless to complain. We simply must act accordingly. Since our very lives are in danger, we must be prepared in both mind and body.” Both Ms. Hallander and Master Tohei suggest that a martial discipline, to rise to the level of martial art, is must be conceived as a method to defend oneself in a self-defense, if not life-or-death, situation. Anything that falls short of this stringent definition is something other than a martial art.
Hanmadang
In addition it competition in Kyorugi and Poomsae, Taekwondo offers a unique type of alternative event: Hanmadang. The Korean word, “Hanmadang,” is somewhat difficult to translate. In its purest sense, it means, “Everyone coming together to celebrate, enjoy, and cheer one another.” It is a festival as well as a competition. A Hanmadang includes spectacular breaking routines, often incorporating multiple acrobatic breaks, both traditional and creative forms, and self-defense demonstrations. Unlike Olympic style Taekwondo kyorugi competition (or Poomsae for that matter!), which even its detractors admit is a fiercely contested match between two individuals, where a winner and loser must be chosen, Hanmadang teaches each individual to train to better oneself. This type of competition is complementary to the one-on-one competition found in the Olympic Games and incorporates those elements of Taekwondo that critics of sport Taekwondo feel are lost in the pursuit of victory. The Taekwondo celebrated in a Hanmadang is accessible to practitioners of all age groups and levels of experience.
Contact
Central to the issue of sport vs. martial art in Taekwondo is the issue of contact. Olympic style Taekwondo kyorugi permits full contact to designated targets on the body and face. Protective equipment is worn, nonetheless, knockouts occur. It is the full contact nature of Taekwondo Kyorugi that begs comparison to other forms of competitive fighting: full-contact karate, Muay Thai, MMA, etc. Critics of Taekwondo kyorugi point to its superficial similarity to these disciplines and its inherently dangerous, indeed, occasionally brutal nature as elements that distinguish Taekwondo from,” true,” martial arts. Taekwondo training, in their view, does not, and should not, incorporate full contact training. I am afraid that individuals that subscribe to this position are very much mistaken! The genesis of Taekwondo, and, indeed, many martial arts, was during a period of time when martial arts were needed in order to survive a lethal confrontation, often on the battlefield. Stated differently, practitioners of Taekwondo’s antecedents engaged in nothing but full-contact fighting! Of course, this, “full-contact fighting,” was often to the death! Sparring as we know it today is a late 19th, early 20th-century innovation (thank you, Dr, Kano). Full contact, then, has been associated with Taekwondo from the time of its origin.
Unarmed face-to-face life or death struggles on the battlefield came to an end with the widespread introduction of firearms into warfare during the 19th. Century. For a period of time, martial artists had little opportunity to test their art in actual combat. It was only when Judo randori, free sparring, was introduced by Dr. Jiguro Kano in the late 19th Century that martial artists were once again afforded an opportunity to test their skills against an opponent. Dr. Kano’s innovation both eliminated inherently dangerous techniques and implemented rules designed to prevent injuries. Free sparring has been incorporated into numerous martial arts and, in various forms, is widely practiced.
The long-standing question of how best to engage in sparring is constantly debated. Many strikes are considered by many to be, at least potentially, lethal. Advocates of, “no contact,” sparring argue that any sort of contact constitutes a danger to the participants. This point of view held sway in the 1960s and early 1970s, particularly in Karate tournaments. As an occasional participant in Karate tournaments (“point tournaments”) during this time, I can testify that this certainly was not the case: injuries were frequent and expected! A measure of control, i.e., deliberately delivering techniques short of contact was required; competitors were not always successful. Training to achieve the control required for this sort of competition resulted in techniques that were less than completely effective in a self-defense situation. When Grandmaster Jhoon Rhee introduced foam hand and foot protection in the 1970’s, the nature of Karate tournaments changed, gradually moving towards more contact and culminating with, “Full Contact Karate,” which is virtually indistinguishable from kickboxing. As the rules changed to permit more and more contact, the true efficacy of a number of techniques was revealed. I recall a successful point tournament competitor whose signature technique was a jump spinning back fist; once contact was permitted, he, and this technique, disappeared!
Those who advocate full contact sparring argue that this form of training most closely replicates the conditions one is confronted within an actual self-defense situation. The extreme expression of this position is found among those who advocate contests with no rules, i.e., “no-holds-barred,” contests. Early Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) competitors claimed to engage in contests without rules, time limits, weight classes, etc. (this is not entirely correct: the first Ultimate Fighting Championship, UFC-1, forbade eye-gouging and fish hooking). In fact, the only form of combat that is truly fought without rules is…actual combat! Every other form is to some degree mitigation of the conditions found in actual combat. No form of sparring, then, is without flaws. Full contact sparring may most closely replicates actual combat, but also has the greatest potential for injury; “no contact,” sparring, while relatively safe, inadequately prepares students for actual self- defense. Perhaps the most meaningful way to look at martial arts sparring competition is as a continuum, with actual life-or-death struggle on one extreme and, “no contact,” sparring the opposite extreme.
Sport as Martial Art
Those who engage in competitive martial arts often hear the term, “sport,” as if referring to a game with no usefulness. The implication is that a sport is only, “play,” and cannot be effective for self-defense. As discussed above, to the extent technique is modified to achieve competitive success, this characterization has the ring of truth. However, as we have seen the distinction between sport and martial art is rather more complex and ultimately, rather surprising. In his insightful article, Fighting or Playing?, The Martial Art vs. Sport Debate, Neil Ohlenkamp states:
Typifying this approach is a student who falsely equates the ability to break boards with the ability to punch a person in the face. As another example, I have never seen realistic training in throat strikes or eye gouges in any martial arts class, even though these are often recommended for self-defense…but does not provide fast, reflexive and accurate application of these techniques against an unwilling opponent in real-life combat.
Mr.Ohlenkamp goes on to state, “Sport, by removing some of the potential dangers, achieves the opposite. That is, sport more typically produces natural, fast reflexive movement with full power application, achieving a result against a struggling opponent who is also engaging in strategic and tactical resistance using all of his or her resources and training.” Mr. Ohlenkamp has captured the essence of truth: it is a sport, provided it is full contact, that prepares one for actual combat… That is not to say that one must train like an Olympic athlete in order to acquire the skill required for effective self-defense, but it is the case that one’s training must include a form of full-contact sparring. Nor should training for competition to be understood as self-defense training. Even full contact, no-holds-barred matches are conducted under carefully controlled conditions, against a single opponent, governed by rules, etc. and pale in comparison to an actual life-or-death confrontation. Full contact sparring is not identical to self-defense training, rather, the lessons learned and skills developed from full contact sparring should inform and enable the Taekwondo practitioner in a self-defense situation.
Integration
The sport vs. traditional Taekwondo debate continues to rage although, in fact, the issue has long been decided. Taekwondo is both a martial art and sport, or perhaps more accurately, it is a martial that incorporates sport. Interestingly, this has always been the case. There is historical evidence that both Tae Kyon and Su Bak were viewed as both recreational activities (sport!) and as means of physical fitness during the reign of King Uijong of the Koryo Dynasty. Later, under the influence of Confucianism, the martial nature of these arts was deemphasized in pursuit of state welfare through the nurturing of the superior man. Until the sixteenth century, when the Japanese were using the Korean peninsula as egress into China and the native population was forced to resist, martial arts were reduced to little more than a form of entertainment at state festivals and government functions. A painting by the artist Hong Do Kim from the Yi dynasty shows two competitors engaged in free sparring for the apparent enjoyment of an audience congregated on the grounds of the royal temple. Literally, from the time of its origin, then, Taekwondo has been both sport and martial art. Both aspects of Taekwondo can and must coexist harmoniously if Taekwondo is to grow and prosper. Both approaches have a positive value if done responsibly and with integrity. Sport Taekwondo must never advocate the, “win at any cost” attitude, even to the point of injuring an opponent, far too often found in the West. Rather, sport Taekwondo must be conducted in accordance with the Five Tenets of Taekwondo.
Perhaps the best model for the ideal relationship between sport and traditional Taekwondo is found in the universal symbol , Um-Yang, which symbolizes the dynamic, complementary relationship between polar opposites (light-dark, male-female, …)and is found on the Korean national flag. As Marc Tedeschi states in his massive work, Taekwondo (Weatherhill 2003), “If we keep this fundamental idea in mind, and recognize that Taekwondo is an inherent part of things larger than itself, Taekwondo’s path becomes quite clear. This path is not something that can be concretely articulated in words or plotted on a map, rather it is instinctively understood through experience and by acceptance. How Taekwondo’s martial-sport issues will ultimately be resolved, no one can say. However, harmony is reflected in acceptance, integration, and pluralism, rarely through a one-dimensional or extreme point of view.” Taekwondo is both martial and sport and is stronger and more effective as a result.